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This timeline features Premodern example of nanotechnology, as well as Modern Era discoveries and milestones in the field of nanotechnology.
Premodern Examples of Nanotechnologies
Early examples of nanostructured materials were based on craftsmen’s empirical understanding and manipulation of materials. Use of high heat was one common step in their processes to produce these materials with novel properties.
4th Century: The Lycurgus Cup (Rome) is an example of dichroic glass; colloidal gold and silver in the glass allow it to look opaque green when lit from outside but translucent red when light shines through the inside.
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| The Lycurgus Cup at the British Museum, lit from the outside (left) and from the inside (right) |
9th–17th Centuries: Glowing, glittering “luster” ceramic glazes used in the Islamic world, and later in Europe, contained silver or copper or other metallic nanoparticles. (Image at right.)
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| Polychrome lustreware bowl, 9th C, Iraq, British Museum (©Trinitat Pradell 2008) |
6th–15th Centuries: Vibrant stained glass windows in European cathedrals owed their rich colors to nanoparticles of gold chloride and other metal oxides and chlorides; gold nanoparticles also acted as photocatalytic air purifiers. (Image at left.)
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| The South rose window of Notre Dame Cathedral, CA 1250 |
13th–18th Centuries: “Damascus” saber blades contained carbon nanotubes and cementite nanowires—an ultrahigh-carbon steel formulation that gave them strength, resilience, the ability to hold a keen edge, and a visible moiré pattern in the steel that give the blades their name. (Images below.)
Examples of Discoveries and Developments Enabling Nanotechnology in the Modern Era
These are based on increasingly sophisticated scientific understanding and instrumentation, as well as experimentation.
1857
Michael Faraday discovered colloidal “ruby” gold, demonstrating that nanostructured gold under certain lighting conditions produces different-colored solutions.
Gold Bulletin 2007 40.4, p. 267
1936
Erwin Müller, working at Siemens Research Laboratory, invented the field emission microscope, allowing near-atomic-resolution images of materials.
1947
John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs discovered the semiconductor transistor and greatly expanded scientific knowledge of semiconductor interfaces, laying the foundation for electronic devices and the Information Age.
1947 transistor, Bell Labs
1950
Victor La Mer and Robert Dinegar developed the theory and a process for growing monodisperse colloidal materials. Controlled ability to fabricate colloids enables myriad industrial uses such as specialized papers, paints, and thin films, even dialysis treatments.
1951
Erwin Müller pioneered the field ion microscope, a means to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip; he first imaged tungsten atoms.
1956
Arthur von Hippel at MIT introduced many concepts of—and coined the term—“molecular engineering” as applied to dielectrics, ferroelectrics, and piezoelectrics.
1958
Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments originated the concept of, designed, and built the first integrated circuit, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 2000.
Jack Kilby, about 1960
1959
Richard Feynman of the California Institute of Technology gave what is considered to be the first lecture on technology and engineering at the atomic scale, "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech.
Richard Feynman (Caltech archives)
1965
Gordon Moore, Intel co-founder, described in Electronics magazine several trends he foresaw in electronics. Known as Moore’s Law, he observed the density of transistors on an integrated chip doubling every 12 months (later 24 months) and predicted ongoing shrinkage in chip sizes with increasing performance.
Moore’s first public graph showing his vision of "cramming more components onto integrated circuits"
1974
Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo Science University coined the term "nanotechnology" to describe precision machining of materials to within atomic-scale dimensional tolerances.
1981
Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM's Zurich lab invented the scanning tunneling microscope, allowing scientists to "see" (create direct spatial images of) individual atoms for the first time. Binnig and Rohrer won the Nobel Prize for this discovery in 1986.
1981
Russia's Alexei Ekimov discovered nanocrystalline, semiconducting quantum dots in a glass matrix and conducted pioneering studies of their electronic and optical properties.
1985
Rice University researchers Harold Kroto, Sean O’Brien, Robert Curl, and Richard Smalley discovered the Buckminsterfullerene (C60), a molecule resembling a soccer ball composed entirely of carbon. Their work earned the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Diagram of the buckyball (C60), a spherical carbon molecule
1985
Bell Labs’s Louis Brus discovered colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals (quantum dots), for which he later shared the 2008 Kavli Prize in Nanotechnology.
1986
Gerd Binnig, Calvin Quate, and Christoph Gerber invented the atomic force microscope, which has the capability to view, measure, and manipulate materials down to fractions of a nanometer in size.
1989
Don Eigler and Erhard Schweizer at IBM's Almaden Research Center manipulated 35 individual xenon atoms to spell out the IBM logo. This demonstration of the ability to precisely manipulate atoms ushered in the applied use of nanotechnology.
IBM logo spelled using 35 xenon atoms manipulated by a scanning tunneling microscope
1991
Sumio Iijima of NEC discovered the carbon nanotube (CNT). CNTs, like buckyballs, are entirely composed of carbon but have a tubular shape. They exhibit extraordinary properties in strength, electrical, and thermal conductivity, among others.
Various images of carbon nanotubes: diagram, SEM micrograph, and aligned array (courtesy: NSF, NASA, Boston College)
1992
C.T. Kresge and colleagues at Mobil Oil discovered the nanostructured catalytic materials MCM-41 and MCM-48, now used heavily in refining crude oil as well as for drug delivery, water delivery, water treatment, and other varied applications.
MCM 41 is a "mesoporous molecular sieve" silica nanomaterial with a hexagonal or "honeycomb" arrangement of its straight cylindrical pores (courtesy of Thomas Pauly, Michigan State University)
1993
Moungi Bawendi of MIT invented a method for controlled synthesis of nanocrystals (quantum dots), paving the way for applications ranging from computing to biology to high-efficiency photovoltaics and lighting. Other researchers such as Louis Brus and Chris Murray also contributed methods for synthesizing quantum dots.
1998
The Interagency Working Group on Nanotechnology (IWGN) was formed under the National Science and Technology Council to investigate the state of the art in nanoscale science and technology and to forecast possible future developments. Their report, Nanotechnology Research Directions: Vision for the Next Decade (1999), defined the vision for and led directly to the formation of the U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative in 2000.
1999
Cornell University researchers Wilson Ho and Hyojune Lee probed secrets of chemical bonding by assembling a molecule (iron carbonyl Fe(CO)2) from constituent components iron (Fe) and carbon monoxide (CO) with a scanning tunneling microscope.
The progression of steps using a scanning tunneling microscope tip to "assemble" an iron carbonyl molecule (courtesy, Wilson Ho, Science 285, 1719 (1999))
1999
Chad Mirkin at Northwestern University invented dip-pen nanolithography (DPN®), leading to manufacturable, reproducible "writing" of electronic circuits as well as patterning of biomaterials for cell biology research, nanoencryption, and other applications.
Use of DPN to deposit biomaterials (©2010 Nanoink)
1999–early 2000's
Consumer products making use of nanotechnology began appearing in the marketplace, including lightweight nanotechnology-enabled automobile bumpers that resist denting and scratching, golf balls that fly straighter, tennis rackets that are stiffer, baseball bats with better flex and "kick," nano-silver antibacterial socks, clear sunscreens, wrinkle- and stain-resistant clothing, deep-penetrating therapeutic cosmetics, scratch-resistant glass coatings, faster-recharging batteries for cordless electric tools, and improved displays for televisions, cell phones, and digital cameras.
2000
President Clinton launched the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) to coordinate Federal R&D efforts and promote U.S. competitiveness in nanotechnology. Congress funded the NNI for the first time in FY2001. The NSET Subcommittee of the NSTC was designated as the interagency group responsible for coordinating the NNI.
2003
Congress enacted the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act (P.L. 108-153). The act provided a statutory foundation for the NNI, established programs, assigned agency responsibilities, authorized funding levels, and promoted research to address key issues.
2003
Naomi Halas, Jennifer West, Rebekah Drezek, and Renata Pasqualini at Rice University developed gold nanoshells, which when “tuned” in size to absorb near-infrared light, serve as a platform for the integrated discovery, diagnosis, and treatment of breast cancer without invasive biopsies, surgery, or systemically destructive radiation or chemotherapy.
Computer simulation of growth of gold nanoshell with silica core and outer layer of gold (courtesy H. Halas, Gianna News Network, 2003)
2005
Erik Winfree and Paul Rothemund from the California Institute of Technology developed theories for DNA-based computation and "algorithmic self-assembly" in which computations are embedded in the process of nanocrystal growth.
2006
James Tour and colleagues at Rice University built a nanoscale car made of oligo(phenylene ethynylene) with alkynyl axles and four spherical C60 fullerene (buckyball) wheels. Increases in temperature caused the nanocar to move about on a gold surface as a result of buckyball wheels turning, as in a conventional car.
Nanocar with turning buckyball wheels (credit: RSC, 29 March 2006)
2007
Angela Belcher and colleagues at MIT built a lithium-ion battery with a common type of virus that is nonharmful to humans, using a low-cost and environmentally benign process. These virus-based batteries could be used to power personal electronic devices and hybrid cars.
(L to R) MIT professors Yet-Ming Chiang, Angela Belcher, and Paula Hammond display a virus-loaded film that can serve as the anode of a battery. (Photo: Donna Coveney, MIT News)
2009–2010
Nadrian Seeman and colleagues at New York University created several DNA-like robotic nanoscale assembly devices. One is a process for creating 3D DNA structures using synthetic sequences of DNA crystals that can be programmed to self-assemble using “sticky ends” and placement in a set order and orientation. Seeman shared the 2010 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience for this work.
2010
IBM used a silicon tip measuring only a few nanometers at its apex to chisel away material from a substrate and create a complete nanoscale 3D relief map of the world, one-one thousandth the size of a grain of salt. This activity demonstrated a powerful patterning methodology for generating nanoscale patterns and structures as small as 15 nanometers at greatly reduced cost and complexity.
A rendered image of a nanoscale silicon tip chiseling out the smallest relief map of the world from a substrate of organic molecular glass (courtesy of Advanced Materials)
2012
George Church of Harvard University and colleagues published the first scientific article on DNA data storage: Next-Generation Digital Information Storage in DNA.
2016
A research team led by Berkeley Lab created a transistor with a working 1-nanometer gate, breaking the size barrier set by the laws of physics. Smallest. Transistor. Ever.
2018
Physicists at MIT and Harvard tuned graphene to behave both as an insulator and as a superconductor, enabling electrons to either be completely blocked or to flow without resistance. Insulator or superconductor? Physicists find graphene is both.
2019
Prof. Molly Stevens from Imperial College of London and Prof. Sangeeta Bhatia from MIT developed a novel diagnostic tool that changes color in the presence of cancer, using nanosensors attached to gold nanoclusters. Colour-change urine test for cancer shows potential in mouse study.
2020
Researchers at Rice University discovered that solid carbon waste can be turned into graphene, providing an efficient recycling method. Rice lab turns trash into valuable graphene in a flash.
2020
Lipid nanoparticles were used as drug delivery vehicles in the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines developed by Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna.
2020
Northwestern University developed a porous smart sponge capable of selectively absorbing oil spills without harming marine life. Smart sponge could clean up oil spills.
2020
MIT researchers demonstrated that carbon nanotube field-effect transistors can be fabricated into circuits more efficiently, accelerating potential commercial adoption. Carbon nanotube transistors make the leap from lab to factory floor.
2021
Researchers from the Kavli Institute and Argonne National Laboratory built an electron microscope pixel array detector that set a world record for spatial resolution. Cornell researchers see atoms at record resolution.
2021
IBM announced the world’s first 2-nanometer chip technology, opening new horizons for faster, more efficient semiconductors.
2021
A team from Harvard and Nanyang Technological University developed a biodegradable food packaging material infused with antimicrobial nanocompounds. Keep food fresh with nanotech packaging.
2022
Chemists at Rice University working with researchers at the Ford Motor Company turned plastic parts from “end-of-life” vehicles into graphene via the university’s flash Joule heating process. To test whether end-of-life, mixed plastic could be transformed, the scientists ground the shredder "fluff" made of plastic bumpers, gaskets, carpets, mats, seating, and door casings from end-of-life F-150 pickup trucks to a fine powder. Cars could get a ‘flashy’ upgrade.
2023
Physicists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the National Institute for Materials Science in Tsukuba, Japan, revealed a new and exotic property in magic-angle graphene: superconductivity that can be turned on and off with an electric pulse. Superconductivity switches on and off in “magic-angle” graphene.
2023
Researchers from the National Institute of Standards and Technology and NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory built a superconducting camera containing 400,000 pixels—400 times more than any other device of its type. NIST Team Develops Highest-Resolution Single-Photon Superconducting Camera.
2023
Moungi G. Bawendi (MIT), Louis E. Brus (Columbia University), and Alexei I. Ekimov (Nanocrystals Technology Inc.) were awarded the 2023 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery and synthesis of nanoparticles called quantum dots. They planted an important seed for nanotechnology.
