Editorial from the Journal of
Nanoparticle Research, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 5-11, 2001
(*) Based on the presentation
made at the Cornell Nanofabrication Center, September 15, 2000.
All natural and living systems are
governed by atomic and molecular behavior at the nanoscale. Research is now
seeking systematic approaches to create revolutionary new products and
technologies by control of matter at the same scale. Fundamental discoveries
and potential implications of nanotechnology to wealth, health and peace have
captured the imagination of scientists, industry and government experts. The
National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) has become a top national priority in
science and technology in U.S. for fiscal year 2001, with a Federal
nanotechnology investment portfolio of $422 million. Nanotechnology is expected
to have a profound impact on our economy and society in the earlier 21st
century.
The vision, research and
development strategy, and timeline of the nanotechnology initiative are
presented by using several recent scientific discoveries and results from
industry.
The essence of nanotechnology is the ability to work at the atomic, molecular and macromolecular levels in order to create materials, devices and systems with fundamentally new properties and functions. Building blocks are atoms and molecules, or their assemblies such as nanoparticles, nanolayers, nanowires and nanotubes. The relative arrangement of the elementary blocks of matter into their assemblies leads to new properties and functions even for the same chemical composition. For example, the arrangement of the carbon atoms at nanoscale is the only difference between soft graphite, hard diamond, and conducting nanotubes. Machines with complex functions on the scale of a virus or a human cell are envisioned.
Scientific discoveries and
technological innovations are at the core of human endeavor. Besides the
societal needs of wealth and health, there is an intrinsic need for
intellectual advancement, working at the frontiers. The intellectual drive
towards the nanoworld has sparked the current developments in nanoscale science
and engineering. Nanotechnology will allow us to reach beyond our natural size
limitation and work directly at the building blocks of matter. This holds the
promise for a new renaissance in our understanding of nature, means for
improving human performance, and a new industrial revolution in coming decades.
We are beginning not only to see, touch, smell, and uncover unique phenomena at
the building blocks of matter, but also to manipulate them and manufacture
under control for a given purpose. Understanding the nature and manufacturing
at the nanoscale may have wide implications on our civilization in long term.
Because of the high risk – high return, long term, broad based and
interdisciplinary nature of the research and development (R&D) and the
potential societal benefits, nanotechnology has received national public
attention and support in U.S. (NSTC, 1999 and 2000). Interest towards nanoscale
research is growing in virtually every industrial nation.
The first level of organization of atoms and molecules into "defect free" coherent structures such as crystalline grains, clusters, or biomotors is at the nanoscale. This scale is between a single atom and bulk behavior; that is, between a fraction of nanometer to about 100 nanometers as a function of the material structure and phenomena under consideration. At the nanoscale, living and non-biological materials can interact and establish hybrid systems, and interactions are determined by a rich information on surfaces. Most of the specific phenomena manifest at distances just under 10-20 nanometers. This is the scale where the basic building blocks of matter are established, where the fundamental properties are defined and can be adjusted as a function of the size, shape and pattern of the matter at the nanoscale. The way in which the matter is organized further into larger structures also plays an essential role on the bulk behavior. In nanotechnology, we are looking to engineer products by control at the nanoscale and integration along larger scales.
Establishing understanding and
manufacturing methods at the building blocks of matter is a historical
opportunity in human development. The ability to rearrange matter on a
nanoscale is potentially a very economical way to obtain functionality, with
the promise of becoming the highest-added-value manufacturing approach. The
matter can be rearranged at this scale by using weak interactions, such as
electrostatic dipole, hydrogen bonds, van der Walls forces,
hydrophobic/hydrophilic interactions, complimentary DNA hybridization, fluidic
assembly, and other assembling and patterning approaches. Guided selfassembling
is an example where the arrangement of molecules is made under control by an
external magnetic field, electric field, flow field, templating or other means.
Manipulation of matter with atomic/molecular precision by weak interactions
requires relatively low energy dissipation, significantly lower that changes at
the subatomic level or changes at larger scales for obtaining the same property
or function. It may become the ultimate manufacturing approach once one would
achieve fundamental understanding of phenomena and processes at that scale.
Nanoscale is a complex
interdisciplinary playground. A nanoscale system requires time- dependent
investigations of various simultaneous phenomena among a large number of
components and scales.
At the end of 1996, we have
identified nanotechnology as a dormant opportunity with immense potential, and
we began the process of establishing a vision for the field, what should be
achieved, and how to reach the best outcomes. Pervasive scientific drivers
toward the nanoworld and the promise of high societal return were the reasons.
Discovery of novel material structures with fundamentally new properties, new
tools demonstrating nanoscale phenomena, new molecular assembling and
fabrication techniques leading to nanoscale manufacturing, were facts
suggesting a set of general and unitary principles for a variety of disciplines
and areas of application. The promise to better understand nature, a new world
of products that are not possible otherwise, highly efficient manufacturing of
almost all human made objects, molecular medicine and an avenue to long term
sustainable development were the main societal drivers.
Education will move from the
microscopic to molecular concepts at all levels, and more general and creative
research will be stimulated. A significant benefit is the synergism among
disciplines and areas of relevance. Nanotechnology R&D should encourage
studies on societal and educational implications.
Current scientific breakthroughs
that act as internal stimuli for further nanotechnology R&D. Nanoparticles
and nanolayers with different functions, tubes and wires of various materials,
three-dimensional molecular assemblies and tissue replacements, have been
synthesized. Novel tools such as the nano-mechanical tweezers and various
microscopes have been developed. Quantum behavior at room temperature and
quantum corral have been demonstrated. New processes include guided selfassembling,
biomimetic templating, and fabrication with atomic precision. Ultrasmall
devices have been designed and tested, including molecular electronics devices,
nanobiomotors, nano- electro-mechanical systems (NEMS). Examples of area of
relevance are revolutionary computing (chemical, DNA-based, quantum computing,
spin electronics), preparation of chemicals and biostructures, new drug
synthesis and delivery methods into human body, multifunctional nanostructured
composite materials, to name only a few. The main scientific drivers are
discovery of new phenomena at nanoscale, methods of measurements and modeling
of large number of nano-objects, understanding the connection between
nanostructure and function, manipulation with atomic and molecular precision, assembling
and connecting at nanoscale, understanding modern biology and the synergism
with information technology.
The promise of nanoscale science
and engineering for understanding the nature, improving health, wealth,
sustainable development and peace acts as an external stimulus for the field.
Here are several examples based on research in progress or envisioned by
private sector:
These examples show that
nanotechnology has the potential to significantly change a large cross-section
of the economy in the next decades in industrialized countries. Technology
drivers include extension of Moore's law behind microelectronics, biologically
based devices and biomimetics, new functional materials (constructive,
catalysts, pharmaceutics, etc.), quantum technology and portable electronic
devices.
Physical, chemical, biological,
materials and engineering sciences have arrived to nanoscale about the same
time. Engineering plays an important role because when we refer to
nanotechnology we speak about ‘systems’ at nanoscale, where the treatment of
simultaneous phenomena in multibody assemblies would require integration of
disciplinary methods of investigation and an engineering system approach. The
manipulation of a large system of molecules is equally challenging to a
thermodynamics engineer researcher as it is to a single-electron physics
researcher. They need to work together. Engineering needs to redefine its domain
of relevance to effectively take this role in conjunction with other
disciplines. Several reasons for an increased role of engineering are:
The engineering community needs to
redefine the role of engineering from analysis, design and manufacturing mainly
at the macro- and micro- scales towards the ‘nanoscale engineering’; improve
education and training of engineers to better understand phenomena and
processes from the atomic, molecular and macromolecular levels; and address
problem-driven and interdisciplinary nanotechnology R&D where engineering
plays an important role.
Six increasingly interconnected
megatrends in science and engineering are perceived as dominating the scene for
the next decades:
Such advancements evolve in
coherence, with multiple areas of confluence and with temporary divergences.
For example, information technology helps to simulate and visualize the
nanoworld, and nanoscale tools help measurement and manipulation of DNA. Nanoscale
science and engineering is expected to grow in close synergism with the digital
revolution and modern biology. It is the most exploratory and a condition for
the development of the other two in the next 10-15 years. Melding of human
development with science and engineering development is also notable.
Fundamental discoveries and revolutionary innovations at nanoscale create a
tension between the society’s quest for more control over nature in the future,
and society’s strong desire for stability and predictability in the present.
The development of nanoscale science and engineering is considered in this
broader perspective.
A planning activity at the national
level to advance nanoscale science and engineering R&D has been underway in
the U.S. since October 1998 when the Interagency Working Group on Nanoscience,
Engineering and Technology (IWGN) has been established by the National Science
and Technology Council (NSTC). The plan would ensure that the fundamental
sciences and key technological opportunities of nanotechnology would reach
their potential sooner, that a flexible and balanced infrastructure and
educated workforce would be available for nanotechnology development, and key
technological grand challenges would be addressed (Roco, 1999). NNI was
proposed at the White House, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Committee
of Technology at the meeting on March 10, 1999.
The nanoscale science, engineering
and technology budget of all U.S. Federal agencies of $116 million in fiscal
year 1997 has increased to about $255 million in 1999 and $270 million in 2000
(NSTC, 2000). The report “Nanotechnology Research Directions” (Roco, Williams
and Alivisatos, eds., NSTC, 1999) calls for a national initiative in fiscal
year 2001 that will significantly increase the Federal government annual
investment to about half billion dollars. On May 12, 1999, Richard Smalley,
Nobel Laureate, concluded in his testimony to the Senate Subcommittee on
Science, Technology, and Space that “We are about to be able to build things
that work on the smallest possible length scales. It is in our Nation's best
interest to move boldly into this new field.” On June 22, 1999, the
Subcommittee on Basic Research of the Committee on Science organized the
hearing on "Nanotechnology: The State of Nano-Science and Its Prospects
for the Next Decade". The Subcommittee Chairman Nick Smith, Michigan
concluded the hearings stating that "Nanotechnology holds promise for
breakthroughs in health, manufacturing, agriculture, energy use and national
security. It is sufficient information to aggressively address funding of this
field.” On November 18, 1999, the Presidential Council of Advisers in Science
and Technology (PCAST) Nanotechnology Panel met and prepared a recommendation
to the Administration. The White House announced NNI in January 2000 and
submitted the NNI plan to Congress in February 2000. NSTC has established the
Subcommittee on Nanoscale Science, Engineering and Technology (NSET) as part of
the Committee on Technology in August 2000. Its goal is to work towards NNI
implementation, facilitate interagency collaboration for nanoscale R&D,
continue to define the vision for nanotechnology, and provide a framework form
establishing federal R&D priorities and budget. Twelve departments and
independent agencies participate at this moment.
President Clinton announced the
initiative on January 21, 2000, at Caltech: "Imagine the possibilities:
materials with ten times the strength of steel and only a small fraction -
shrinking all the information housed at the Library of Congress into a device
the size of a sugar cube - detecting cancerous tumors when they are only a few
cell in size". Some of our research goals may take 20 or more years to achieve,
but that is precisely why there is an important role for the federal
government". Since January 2000, research in these three areas has
progressed much faster then expected. A White House letter signed jointly by
the Office of Science and technology Policy and the Office of Management and
Budget and sent to all agencies in the Fall 2000 has placed nanotechnology at
the top of the list of emerging fields of research and development in the U.S.
NNI will ensure that investments in
this area are made in a coordinated and timely manner, and will accelerate the
pace of revolutionary discoveries now occurring in nanoscale science and
engineering. This effort will:
·
Expedite long-term, fundamental research aimed at
discovering novel phenomena, processes and tools, including nanoscale systems
that are important in biology and in the environment
·
Address the synthesis and processing of engineered,
nanometer-scale building blocks for materials and system components,
·
Develop new device concepts and system architecture appropriate
to the unique features and demands of nanoscale engineering,
·
Apply nanostructured materials to innovative
technologies for commerce (manufacturing, computing and communications, power
systems, energy), health, environment and Earth sciences, and national
security,
·
Educate and train a new generation of skilled workers
in the multidisciplinary perspectives necessary for rapid progress in
nanotechnology, and
·
Address the societal implications of the scientific and
technological advances in nanoscience and nanotechnology.
The key challenges and
opportunities of the NNI have been addressed in a series of publication:
“Nanostructure Science and Technology” (Siegel et al., eds., NSTC, 1999; this
is a worldwide comparative study); “Nanotechnology Research Directions” (Roco
et al., eds., NSTC, 1999; it provides a vision for the next decade); “National
Nanotechnology Initiative: The Initiative and the Implementation Plan” (NSTC,
2000; goals and plans for fiscal year 2001); “Societal Implications of Nanoscience
and Nanotechnology” (Roco and Bainbridge, eds., workshop proceedings, 2000);
and “Nanotechnology - Shaping the World Atom by Atom” (NSTC, 1999; brochure for
the public).
The NNI enacted by Congress in November
2000 will expand the Federal nanotechnology investment portfolio to $422
million dollars in fiscal year 2001, a 56% increase over the previous year. The
research and development priorities have been developed in consultation with
experts from academe, private sector and government laboratories, as well as
through the coordination of the funding agencies. The investments of six U.S.
departments and independent agencies are shown in the following table.
|
|
|||
|
Department/Agency |
FY 1997 |
FY 1999 |
FY 2001 |
|
NSF |
$65 million |
$85 million |
$150 million |
|
DOD (including DARPA, ARO, AFOSR, ONR) |
$32 million |
$70 million |
$110 million |
|
DOE |
$7 million |
$58 million |
$93 million |
|
NIST (DOC) |
$4 million (with ATP) |
$16 million (with ATP) |
$10 million (without ATP) |
|
NASA |
$3 million |
$5 million |
$20 million |
|
NIH |
$5 million |
$21 million |
$39 million |
|
Total |
$116 million |
$255 million |
$422 million |
NSF will make the largest
investment of $150 million in fiscal year 2001. NSF programs embrace topics
from chemistry, materials, molecular biology and engineering to revolutionary
computing, mathematics, geosciences and social sciences. The first 'nano'
program on Nanoparticle Synthesis and Processing has been initiated in 1991,
and the National Nanofabrication User Network has been established in 1994.
About 650 projects with over 2,700 faculty and students, and more than ten
centers, were supported in fiscal year 2000.
Nine areas for "grand
challenges" are targeted by all participating funding agencies in the
first year of NNI:
New grand challenges on
instrumentation, nanoscale manufacturing, focused on single molecule, and
improving human performance are under consideration for the second year (fiscal
year 2002). The NSTC interagency subcommittee is actively seeking input from
research groups, professional societies and industry on new, exciting
challenges to be considered for next years.
The NNI implementation plan in
fiscal year 2001 (October 2000 - September 2001) includes the proposed funding
themes and modes of support by the U.S. funding agencies, as well as
coordinated activities in order to increase the synergism, avoid unnecessary
overlapping, and create a balance and flexible infrastructure. The following
program solicitations for fiscal year 2001 proposals have been issued as part
of the NNI implementation plan (full information is available on
http://nano.gov) (Schultz, 2000):
The NSF program solicitation on
Nanoscale Science and Engineering is part of the NSF contribution to NNI in the
first year (see http://www.nsf.gov/nano). The program is focused on biosystems
at nanoscale, novel phenomena and structure, quantum control, novel devices and
architectures for integrated nano-systems, nanoscale processes in environment,
multiphenomena/multiscale modeling and simulation, as well as societal
implications studies and education. Interdisciplinary teams, synergistic
centers and exploratory research are encouraged in this solicitation, while
single investigator research and education are supported throughout all NSF
programs.
Nanoscale science and engineering
R&D is mostly in a precompetitive phase. International collaboration in
fundamental research, long-term grand challenges, metrology, education and
studies on societal implications will play an important role in the affirmation
and growth of the field. NNI develops in this context. The vision setting and
collaborative model of NNI has received international acceptance, and most
industrialized countries are establishing or are planning to establish their
own programs. Opportunities for collaboration towards an international nanotechnology
effort will increase once those national programs are in place. Priorities for
research and education will be topics addressing development of humanity and
our civilization. Examples include understanding single molecules and operation
of single cells, improving health and the human performance, assembling tools
for the building blocks of matter, high productivity in manufacturing, highly
efficient solar energy conversion and water desalinization for sustainable
development.
The vision of the NNI includes a
path to discoveries of new properties and phenomena at the nanoscale, working
directly at the building blocks of matter with cross-cutting approaches and
tools applicable to almost all man made objects, and development of highly
efficient manufacturing. This is completed by the promise of better
comprehension of the nature, increased wealth, better healthcare and long-term
sustainable development. The vision has been adopted by a broad coalition of
academe, private sector, government R&D laboratories, and U.S. funding
agencies. President Clinton announced the research and development program in
January 2000, and in November 2000 the U.S. Congress enacted the $422 million
NNI budget for fiscal year 2001.
Nanoparticle synthesis and
processing is an essential component of nanotechnology because the specific
properties are realized at the nanoparticle, nanocrystal, nanotube or nanolayer
level, and assembling of precursor particles and related structures is the most
generic route to generate nanostructured materials.
Science, technology, and economic
factors are expected to bring nanotechnology to a central role in our lives in
just one to two decades. We are just at the beginning of the development curve.
In medium term, a five-year national effort is needed to reach the uprising
section of that curve. The NNI strategic plan emphasizes exploratory research
areas, support for R&D nanotechnology grand challenges, education and
training at all levels, and establishing a balanced and flexible
infrastructure. Nanotechnology may offer the answer for enhanced productivity,
new products beyond existing technology, longer and better quality of life,
sustainable development, and superior national security. We may be limited only
by our ability to imagine.
The contribution of the NSTC/NSET
members in the development of a national vision for nanotechnology research and
development in the future is acknowledged. Opinions expressed here are those of
the author and do not necessarily reflect the position of NSET or NSF.
J. Murday, "Science and
Technology of Nanostructures in the Department of Defense", J.
Nanoparticle Research, Vol. 1, no. 4, 1999, pp. 501-505.
NSTC, "Nanotechnology -
Shaping the World Atom by Atom", brochure for the public, NSTC,
Washington, D.C., 1999.
NSTC, "National Nanotechnology
Initiative: The Initiative and Its Implementation Plan", Washington, D.C.,
July 2000.
M.C. Roco, R.S. Williams and P.
Alivisatos, eds., "Nanotechnology Research Directions", NSTC,
Washington, D.C., September 1999 (also Kluwer Acad. Publ., Boston, 2000, 316 pages).
M.C. Roco and W. Bainbridge, eds.,
“Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology”, Proc of Workshop at
NSF, version Dec. 4, 2000
M.C. Roco, "Towards a U.S.
National Nanotechnology Initiative", J. Nanoparticle Research, Vol. 1, no.
4, 1999, pp. 435-438.
R.W. Siegel, E. Hu and M.C. Roco,
eds., "Nanostructure Science and Technology", NSTC, Washington, D.C.,
August 1999 (also Kluwer Acad. Publ.,
Boston, 1999, 336 pages).
W. Schultz, "Crafting a
National Nanotechnology Effort", C&EN, 2000, pp. 39-42.